FACILITATING HUMAN LEARNING (2^nd Edition)

Avelina M. Aquino, Ed.D.

Chapter 1: Cognitive Process

           Cognitive Process refers to mental abilities such as perceiving, attending, remembering, memorizing, and problem solving.

     The brain is responsible for cognition. Clearly, the brain is involved whenever learning takes place (Woolfolk,2010).

Cognitive Processes

              
  Our everyday experiences are replete with simple to complex events that call our cognitive processes. Not only can we give concrete examples of how our thoughts process, but we can also provide various examples in a wide variety of life occurrences as the following:

·         Perception

·         Attention

·         Memory

·         Language

·         Reasoning

·         Decision Making

·         Problem Solving

Cognition is influenced by:

ü  Heredity-Our ability to learn is influenced by neurological efficiency and genetic component.

ü  Maturation-process of becoming fully grown, experienced adult learners does not require an external stimulus for it is a natural occurrence within the learners.

ü  Environment- This may include learning opportunities that provide avenues for learning.

Cognitive Processes

                                 I.            Thought Processes

§  TOT experience or tip of the tongue phenomenon

                               II.            Cognitive Process of Experts and Expert Systems

§  Special Knowledge

§  Domain Specificity

§   Analogical Reasoning

§  Expert Systems

§  Creativity

                             III.            Basic Unit of Cognition

§  Concepts- building blocks of cognition.

§  Propositions- composed of related concepts.

§  Schemata- know how information is organized and utilized to interpret our daily life experiences.

Ø  They are basic knowledge

Ø  They are highly  structured

Ø  They are general categories of knowledge

Ø  They are used in comprehension.

                           IV.            Productions

                             V.            Scripts

Cognitive Strategies

            These are mental plans that we apply to manage our thinking and behaviour during problem solving or learning.

ü  Student-Centered instruction

ü  Activating prior knowledge

ü  Social interactions

ü  Problem Solving

ü  Elaboration

ü  Concept Learning

Strategic Demands on Cognitive Processing

            
The major goal of instruction is student learning. The goal of instruction is to help students achieve the learning objective.

ü  Extraneous processing

ü  Essential processing

ü  Generative processing

Learner Centered Psychological Principles

           
Psychological principle deals with learners and how they learn.

Prior Knowledge

            Prior knowledge is a mental structure that describes our knowledge and experiences gained during the course of our life and how old experiences are used to understand new ones.

Strategies for Developing Prior Knowledge

            Development of prior knowledge is based on our ability to learn and the amount of experience we have gained.

Ø  Advance Organizer

Ø  Conceptual and pedagogical models

Ø  Chunking

Ø  Outlining

Ø  Highlighting

Ø  Questioning

Chapter 2: Analogical Process

    Analogical process or thinking refers to our ability to perceive and use relational similarity. Reasoning and problem solving have one thing in common- they involve metacognitive tasks and structures. An analogue is a referent or equivalent cognitive information in the brain that can easily be accessed or mapped when needed.

          Analogical reasoning is a method of information processing that requires the comparison of related features between the old and new concepts.

Analogical processes include the following:

Ø  Retrieval

Ø  Mapping

Ø  Access

Ø  Abstraction

Ø  Representation

Ø  Evaluation

Transfer of Learning (Is the effect of prior learning)

            Positive transfer occurs when students ability to harness strong associations for some recall in the future.

            Negative transfer occurs when students find two events or items in similar when in fact they are not.

            According to Bynes (2001) gives the following reasons why transfer does not work:

ü  Some bits of knowledge are embedded in single contexts

ü  Lack of conditional knowledge

ü  Lack of conceptual knowledge

ü  Inaccurate conceptions of the mind

ü  Lack of metacognition

Ways to Promote Transfer

Ø Similarity

Ø Association

Ø Degree of Original learning

Ø Critical Attributes

Ways to Teach Critical Attributes

    Identify the attribute that describes something as what it is

    Provide simple and specific examples

    Move on to the complicated examples in a gradual manner

    Allow students to generate examples of their own

    Help students realize that there is a limit to various attributes

Chapter 3: Biological and Environmental

Predispositions in Learning

          The adult human brain is almost 1.5 kg (about 3 lb.) mass of pinkish gray jelly like tissue made up of approximately 100 billion nerve cells or neurons, neuroglia (supporting tissues) cells, and vascular ( blood carrying) cells, and other tissues (Roediger 2008). It is the brain the organ that responsible for thoughts and feelings, the part of the body that responsible for intellectual activities. The brain is divided into three different parts: hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain.

Brain Lateralization

            The brain has left and right hemispheres, left hemisphere matches objects analytically and verbally. On the other hand, right hemisphere matches objects that are the same to form a visual pattern or relationship.

Environmental Predisposition in Learning

          Environmental influence starts at the onset of conception of the child; the fetus in the womb is influenced by mother’s mental, physical, and emotional conditions.

Some of the environmental factors or influence can be categorized as:

·        Natural Setting

·         Social setting

·         Cultural Demands

·         Social roles and expectation

·         Media Influence

Chapter 4: METACOGNITIVE PROCESSES

          Metacognition refers to the learners’ understanding and control of their cognitive process (Kauchak & Eggen 2007)

Types of Metacognition:

v  Explicit metacognitive knowledge (focus on factual knowledge)

v  Implicit metacognitive knowledge (children know how to monitor themselves)

Essential Skills for Metacognition:

      Planning

      Monitoring

      Evaluating

Stages of Metacognition:

ü  Rehearsal

1.      Elaborative rehearsal

2.      Questioning and answering

3.      Predicting and clarifying

4.      Restating and Paraphrasing

5.      Outlining and Summarizing

6.      Selecting

7.      Note-taking

8.      Underlining

ü  Clustering

ü  Elaboration

ü Systematic Searching

Differences between Cognitive and Metacognitive Strategies

          Cognitive learning strategies are characterized by intentionally, effort, situation, specificity, and goal-direction (e.g., analysing metaphors in poem). On the other hand, metacognitive learning strategies appear to share common characteristics, also it enhances the thinking skills  and capabilities of adults for self-regulation which implies relatively more complex and complicated forms of learning (e.g., quizzing oneself to evaluate one’s understanding of metaphors in a poem).

Chapter 5: Learning Metaphors

and Theories of Learning

            Learning has been defined as a process of gaining knowledge. Changes in behaviour are pieces of evidence showing that learning has taken place. It means that learning is a change in behaviour attributable to experience (Mayer, 2011)

Metaphors of Learning

          Metaphor is a cognitive tool that enables us to see one thing in terms of developing higher order thinking skills.

Theories of Learning

     I.        (Egan, 2005), it is a transfer meaning from one another on the basis perceived similarities. A specific type of metaphor is called synectics which can be an effective means of Response Strengthening (reinforcement theory concentrates on consequences)

Ø  Reinforcement is commonly viewed as reward. Positive reinforcement occurs when the behaviour produces another new stimulus. On the other hand, if the disappearance or removal of a stimulus occurs, we call negative reinforcement.

Ø  Punishment is another consequence that often confused with reinforcement, used to decrease the performance of a behaviour

Thorndike formulated a number of laws that govern important aspects of behaviour. They are as follows:

1.      The Law of Effect

2.      The Law of Exercise

3.      The Law of Readiness

                

   II.        Information Acquisition

This theory is popularized by Herman Ebbinghaus, he pointed out a quantitative relation between the amount of practice and the amount learned.

III.        Knowledge Construction

This theory is popularized by Frederic Barlett, he proposed that meaningful learning involves assimilating new information to existing schemata. According to this theory, mental construction of meaning is influenced by perception, understanding and memory.

                                

  IV.            Semantic Networks

Based on this network model, knowledge is organized according to it’s meaning.

    V.            Dual Coding

According to Allan Urho Paivio, who proposed this theory, representation of specific information accounts for verbal association and visual imagery.

  VI.            Magic number 7

George Miller is best known to his magic number (7 plus minus 2) which focused his attention on to a problem called cognitive overload.  He believed that people can amass a large volume of information at anytime. He held the idea that 7 plus minus 2 means the number of elements (letters, objects, words, numbers, or other units) that the memory can handle.

VII.            
               Short Term Memory Techniques  (Brownell, 2002)

      Repetition

      Chunking

      Identifying logical patterns

VIII.            Long Term Memory Techniques (Brownell, 2002)

      Association

      Categorization

      Mediation

      Imagery

      Mnemonics

  IX.            Barriers to effective Memory

·         Repression and distortion

·         Retroactive inhibition

·         Primacy and Recency effects

    X.            The Seven Sins of Memory (Daniel, 1999)

v  Transience

v  Absent-mindedness

v  Blocking

v  Misattribution

v  Suggestibility

v  Bias

v  Persistence

  XI.            Generative Process

Merlin C. Wittrock was the founder of this theory that hinges on knowledge about the brain processes and functions. The brain is responsible for cognitive functions such as comprehension, knowledge acquisition, attention, motivation, and transfer.

XII.           Cognitive Process

Cognitive development popularized by Jean Piaget who is known for his research on the development of children’s cognition.

Stages of Cognitive Development

·         Sensorimotor Stage (from birth to two years)

Ø  Reflex scheme level

Ø  Primary circular level

Ø  Secondary circular level

Ø  Coordination of secondary course round modest circular level

Ø  Tertiary circular reaction level

Ø  Symbolic representation

Educational Implications: To foster knowledge in this stage, it is suggested that parents and caretakers allow children to play with objects or other toys that produce sounds.

·         Preoperational stage (two to seven years)

Ø  Preconceptual level

Ø  Intuitive level

Educational Implications: To maximize learning, children may play by putting on costumes or disguising something and encouraging them to take on a different character (e.g., paper, play-doh, sand, clay, water). This activity can help children develop the concept of conservation.

·         Concrete Operational Stage (seven to eleven years)

At this stage, child possesses operative schemes that necessitate him to think logical terms.

Educational Implications: During this stage, children really enjoy helping their mother in the kitchen, especially when she cooks something. Helping mother can be fun especially when such activity turns into a great learning opportunity.

·         Formal Operational Stage ( eleven years and older)

Ø  Composition

Ø  Reversibility

Ø  Associativity

Ø  Identity

Ø  Tautology

Ø  Iteration

Educational Implications: During this stage, students are filled with opportunities for hypothetical situations. They motivated to work collaboratively within groups, or they be allowed to work in pairs so that they develop working on hypothetical topics.

XIII.            Behavior Theory

  All behaviourists are focused on the analyses of stimuli and responses. The methodology used in behaviourism is basically scientific where stimulus variables can be objectively manipulated in response variables can be reliably measured, many behaviourist conducted experiments using animal subjects.

XIV.            Gestalt Psychology

 Gestalt theory was developed by three psychologists: Wolfgang Kohler, Max Wertheimer, and Kurt Koffka. According to Gestalists, behaviour cannot be understood in terms of its molecular parts because the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

Gestalt theory generates five laws that govern perception. They as follows:

·         Law of Continuity

·         Law of Closure

·         Law of Similarity

·         Law of Proximity

·         Law of Pragnanz

XV.            Social Cognitive Theory

This theory refers to the interface between behavioural behaviour and cognitive perspectives. Social-cognitive perspective is focused on both internal and external factors that lead to the idea of reciprocal determinism-the interaction among person, person’s behaviour, and the environment.

XVI.            Social Constructivism

Lev Semeonovich Vygotsky, stressed the people’s culture has something to do with their development. For him, cognitive development is a social process; he maintained the idea that socio-cultural contexts in which it occurs. Vygotsky viewed, can best facilitated  in the zone of proximal development (ZPD) refers to variety of tasks that are slightly too complex for a child to do alone but can be accomplished successfully with guidance from an adult  or more experience child (Bee & Boyd 2007).

Components of Constructivism:

·         Discovery learning

·         Inquiry learning

·         Cooperative learning

·         Individualized learning

·         Learning with technology

XVII.            Jerome Bruner’s Theory

Based on the concept of categorization, Bruner believed that as active learners, student’s continue to structure and restructure their environment. He further believed that the world they experience is a product of their mind. He emphasizes discovery learning that is premised on his belief that the information of coding systems requires discovery relationships.

       Metaphoric assumptions can be helpful in describing learning. To engage our students in the learning enterprise, we can help them for better articulate their thoughts and ideas with the aid of metaphors. Through these theories of learning are offered and these theories differ for a variety of reasons, but these theories help in order to understand the nature of learning and how it occurs.

Chapter 6: Types and Qualities of Knowledge

The concept of knowledge is central to process of learning and instruction.

Types of Knowledge:

Ø  Episodic Knowledge refers to our biographical memory; we have our individual and personal histories that make up who we are.

Ø  Semantic Knowledge deals with the memories and information that are not tied to our personal biography.

Types of SEMANTIC knowledge:

v  Declarative Knowledge

v  Procedural Knowledge

v  Conditional Knowledge

v  Strategic Knowledge

Organization of Semantic Knowledge:

Ø  Facts

Ø  Data

Ø  Information

Ø  Ideas

Ø  Wisdom

Ø  Concepts

Ø  Properties

Ø  Natural categories

Ø  Artifact categories

Ø  Nominal categories

Ø  Generalizations

Qualities of Knowledge

          Qualities of knowledge may be described as generic. Abstract. Informal, elaborate, and structured. Each quality is suited to each type of knowledge while others are used in more general. Although these qualities described, sometimes some seem to overlap.

Knowledge Acquisition Techniques

      Protocol-generation getting information through interviews

      Protocol-analysis scrutiny of interview results

      Hierarchy-production includes types of laddering in order to build taxonomies such as grading or ranking structures.

      Grid-construction deals with the formulation of reference lines on map

      Sorting-out includes putting together things that have the same attributes so that we can organize and disentangle something

      Diagram-based involves provision, application, and processing of concepts to indicate statistical trends or mathematical information

Chapter 7: Articulating the Learning Objectives in the Classroom

Anatomy of Learning Objectives

·         Specificity of student behaviours

·         Description of a specific performance that students will exhibit

·         Describe of the specific result instruction

·         Written in language that students can understand

·         Written for students to remain focused

·         Make use of verb from bloom's taxonomy

·         Emphasize students learning outcomes

·         Help teachers and students begin the lesson with the end of the mind

·         Written in single statement

·         Used by students and teacher throughout the lesson to monitor progress toward learning

Purposes of learning objectives

ü  Guide students in instructional planning, delivery, and evaluation of student performance

ü  Guide and direct behaviour

ü  Provide opportunities for analysis to teaching and learning

ü  Provide clarity including challenges and standards

ü  Help select the appropriate learning experience and evaluation strategies

Components of Learning Objectives (ABCD Components)

Audience- Usually the student

Behaviour- Refers to action that describe an observable (Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Research oriented, Time-bound, Research-Oriented)

Condition- Used to give students limitation:

Ø  Given a set of rules

Ø  "Using the poem the road not taken by Robert Frost...”

Degree of performance or criteria level- Describes how well the behaviour must be performed     to satisfy the intent of the behavioural verb.

Taxonomy types of knowledge

v  Knowledge of facts-Knowledge of basic term

-Knowledge of specific information including its details and   elements

v  Knowledge of concepts- Knowledge of restriction for classifying objects

                                    - Knowledge of principles and generalizations

                                    - knowledge of theories, models, and structures

v  Knowledge of Procedure- knowledge of subject-specific skills and conceptual domains

-knowledge of subject-specific techniques and methods

- knowledge of criteria for determining when to use appropriate   in procedures

v  Knowledge of metacognition- knowledge of certain strategies

- knowledge about function of cognition, including specific contextual and  conditional knowledge

                                    - knowledge of self and regulating self

Chapter 8: The Place of Motivation in Learning

Motivation refers to an internal condition of stimulation that often comes before the performance of a desired behaviour.

Motivation is triggered with variety of sources:

·         Exercise

·         Good nutrition

·         Sleep

·         Rewards

·         Challenges

·         Friendship

·         Kindness

·         Security

·         Authority

·         Independence

·         Pleasant environment

·         Creative expression

·         Meaning

Aspects of Motivation

Ø  Motivation takes place within the individual

Ø  It is possible to treat students in ways that will encourage them to develop the desire for learning.

Ø  It is possible to present materials to be learned in ways that will make learning easier.

Ø  The potential learner’s motivation will automatically be directed toward his or her most pressing need at moment.

Motivation and Behavior

            Motivation is individual and elusive. It is important to learning: yet it is influenced by a person’s beliefs, feelings, interests, and goals. The following factors affect motivation. The following factors affect motivation:

  Knowledge in a particular content area

  Beliefs about what the teacher expects

  Adolescents self-concept or perceived personal ability

  Anxiety and concern over grades

  Level of support I the classroom environment

  Difficulty and challenges of the task

  Social interactions

  Belief that learning is useful, meaningful, and of consequence of others

How motivation works

·         Interest

·         Belief

·         Attributions

·         Goals

·         Social partnership

 Motives and Drives

Motivation is an innate and integral part of our biological predispositions. It means that motivation is connected to our minds, feelings, and emotions. For example, when we are thinking or improving our grades in English, we think of something concrete-one that will help us realize our goal. With the goal in mind, our motives will determine how to respond to that goal. Our feelings are influenced by our responses to a particular behaviour.

    Predominant theories of human motivations mostly assured that people are compelled to act in order to:

Ø  Increase pleasure and decrease painful experience

Ø  Get innate physiological needs

Ø  Compensate for drive (Compton, 2005)

Elements of Motivational System

·         Self-concept

·         self-esteem

·         self-regulation

     Inner Speech

One very specialized form of self-talk is called inner speech (Brownell, 2002). The four characteristics of Inner speech:

1.      Egocentric

2.      Silent

3.      Compressed syntax

4.      Semantic embeddedness

Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy affects the process of choosing goals, expectation of outcomes and achieving success and failure (Snowman and Biehler, 2006).

Chapter 9 Theories of Motivation

Theories of Motivation

There are at least 3 different perspectives to understand motivation.

1. Biological Perspective

·         Instinct Theory-Describes how motivation result in automatic behaviours.

·         Drive-reduction Theory-Is anchored on the belief that all living organisms have biological needs. 

·         Arousal Theory-Emphasizes the idea that we possess a certain amount of curiosity in which we need to explore novelty and complexity of things in the environment.

2. Psychological Theory

·         Incentive Theory-Explain the motivations result in external stimuli.  

·         Cognitive Theory-Concerned with attributions that affect motivation.

3. Humanistic theory

·         Dispositional Theory-This emphasizes the role of stable behavioural tendencies in understanding the differences why individuals behave the way they do.

·         Two-Factor Theory –Herzberg proposed two kinds of factors that that affect motivation.

Hygiene Factor

Motivators

·         Alderfers ERG Theory-He improved Maslows Hierarchy of needs. Exhibits a frustration-regression principle where an already satisfied lower level need can be activated when people fail to satisfy a higher level need.

·         Goal Theories-Represent basic categories for different achievement situation.

Shaping Motivation

The following are some factors that shape motivation.

·         Effective Teachers-Important factor in shaping student motivation. It is believed that effective teachers have a great impact on student performance.

Ø  Pedagogical Knowledge

Ø  Communication Skills

Ø  Leadership

Ø  Human Relations

Ø  Technological Literacy

·         Classroom Management-It is a place where students engage in a free market of ideas as they share their feelings and insights.

·         Effective Instruction-No lesson should begin unless we provide clear instructions and gain students interest.

·         The use of Imaginative activities-Enhancing the motivation of a student.

·         Establishing Effective leaning environment-It should have Withitness-refers to awareness of what is happening in the classroom and Group Alerting pertains to the classroom environment that signals the entire class.

·         Kellers ARCS model in motivation

1.      Attention

2.      Relevance

3.      Confidence

·         Questioning Strategies-Help our student develop focus.

Adjunct questions are strategically placed

Ø  Before the Information

Ø  Within the Information

Ø  After the Information

Chapter 10 Children’s Development

Nature and nurture controversy

Our ability to learn is affected by biological or genetic predisposition             ( nature) and environmental factors (nurture)

Children's learning and development ·         growth development of a child: Constant                                                     H olistic                                                     A utomatic                                                     N atural                                                    G radual                                                     E ssential

                                                   S ystematic

Dialectal theory ·         inner biological dimension deals ·         individual psychological dimension ·         cultural –sociological dimension

·         outer physical dimension

Inner psychological dimension

·         perceptual-cognitive-moral domain

Socio-emotional or personal domain ·         perceptual-cognitive-moral domain ·         children's perception ·         children's cognitive development

·         social- emotional or personality domain

Characteristic of a child learning ·         the learning of a child follows a certain sequence ·         learning proceeds at varying rates

·         development is also affected by multiple socio-cultural context

Young children-biological predisposition to learn

·         they may lack the needed knowledge in some task but they are Knowledgeable in other cognitive domain

Chapter 11 Adolescent Learning

ADOLESCENT LEARNING

Characteristics of adolescent learning

Ø  they have the ability to think of abstract concept and differentiate between hypothetical and real

Ø there is a regular increase in the complexity of their learning and thinking  skills

Developmental dimension

There are a lot of developmental dimension that occur during adolescence. These encompass the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional aspects that help shape teenager's development process

DIMENSION	FEATURES
Ø  Physical	·         There is already sexual maturation ·         Moments intense restlessness; there is a rapid growth because of nutrition demand
Ø  COGNITIVE	·         Creates mental pictures ·         Their minds is filled with other issues ·         They clarify their own thought and share them with others manifest independent and critical thinking
Ø  SOCIAL	·         they also depend on parental values ·         they can easily lose track of time ·         they are frighten by novel situation
Ø  EMOTIONAL	·         They are sensitive to criticism ·         They feel that adults do not understand their feeling ·         Sometimes they tend to be inconsiderate of others

Educational implication of adolescent's learning:

ü  Lesson in class should help them understand their physical development

ü Lesson should provide opportunities for constructive social interaction and non-threatening classroom environment.

Chapter 12 Addressing the Socio-Cultural Development Dimension Learning

Learning Strategies

            Are cognitive processes that not occur automatically but require effort(Santrock, Payne, & Isaacs 2006).

Different between a learning and strategy and a study strategy

·         Learning strategy uses a higher level thinking behaviours such as decision making, self-motivation, and self-monitoring

·         Study strategy is more similar to a standard procedure o an ordered series of steps that requires limited use of higher order thinking skills (Price & Nelson 2007)

v  Personal Management Ø  Efficient use of time ·         Long term goal ·         Short term goals ·         Immediate goals

Ø  To manage wisely ·         Prioritizing ·         To do list ·         Scheduling

v  Personal skills needed to succeed in all subjects ·         Self-discipline ·         Self-esteem self determination ·         Assertiveness ·         Self confidence ·         Motivation ·         Initiative ·         Responsibility ·         Alertness ·         Judgement ·         Time management ·         Money management

v  Study skills needed to succeed in all subjects ·         Finding information ·         Analysing information ·         Processing information ·         Summarizing ·         Problem solving ·         Critical and divergent thinking

Eight principles of effective studying

Principles of practice

1.    Spacing

2.    Feedback

3.    Worked example

4.    Guided discovery

Principles of generating

5.    Testing

6.    Self-explanation

7.    Questioning

8.    elaboration

Guiding student's cognitive processing during instruction

        Effective learning occurs when students are actively involved in and focused on the cognitive process.

Instructional Techniques for selecting

1.      objectives

2.      pre question

3.      post question

4.      highlighting

Organizing

Process of mentality arranging the selected information into a coherent representation.

Instructional techniques for organizing

1.      outline

2.      headline

3.      pointer word

4.      graphic organizer

5.      summarizing

Integrating

            The process of connecting the mental representation with relevant prior knowledge retrieved from long term memory system.

Instructional techniques integrating

      concrete advance organizer

      concrete model

Pedagogy practice

Is science of instruction. It is a set of teacher's repertoire for making students learn from the lesson

·         create supportive learning environment

·         encourage reflective thinking

·         enhance the importance of new learning

·         facilitate shared and negotiated meaning

·         provide sufficient opportunities

Evidence-based practice

Multidisciplinary framework that is rooted in clinical practice since 1992`

12 principles of effective Instructional Design

1.    Coherence

2.    Signalling

3.    Expectation

4.    Segmenting

5.    Spatial contiguity

6.    Temporal contiguity

7.    Pre training

8.    Modality

9.    Multi media

10. Personalization

11.  Concreting

12.  Anchoring

Technology in the classroom

            Teaching and learning are now made easier and more comfortable, with the aid of modern tools in teaching such as the multimedia projector, slides, filmstrips, computers, tablet, learning is made fun and easy. The advent of modern technology has facilitated globalization that influenced the rapidly changing and exploding information and knowledge.

Globalization

            Globalization likewise opens new possibilities for worldwide information exchange and communication (Rao, 2004).

Lifelong Learning

            The concept of lifelong learning may traced in Maslow’s taxonomy of human needs. When we move from one level to another, we try to satisfy our needs. The need for satisfaction is form of learning.

Chapter 13 Social Processes in Learning

The Term “social” refers to the interactions produced in the environment.

Semiotic Mediation and Internalization

            We develop more complex cognitive abilities which Vygotsky called higher mental functions. Examples of which include concentrated attention, deliberate memory, and logical thinking. Children use higher mental functions that are developed through various interactions. These form part of the shared knowledge of a culture. This process known as internalization.

Communication in Learning 

Language is socially negotiated, constructed, and shared

Communication in teaching

The communication of ideas, facts, feeling, and emotion is very crucial in facilitating human learning

The following important needed in in effective expression of ideas

Ø  Word of use

Ø  Encoding and decoding system

Ø  Non-verbal cues

Ø  Attitudes

Ø  Knowledge base

Ø  Socio cultural

Communication and language

         Communication is the heart and soul of the classroom interactions.

Function of language

o   Instrumental

o   Regulatory

o   Interactional

o   Personal

o   Imaginative

o   Informational

o   Heuristic

Characteristic of language

         Every language is unique which characterized by the following:

      language is system

      language is arbitrary

      language is basically vocal

      language is symbolic

      language is infinite

      language is dynamic

      language is social

      language is unique

Effective classroom communication techniques

o   assume the best from everyone

o   operate with the assumption that everyone has the students' best interest in mind

o   keep a positive attitude

o   practice empathy and understanding

Attributes of language( Andrande and May, 2004)

v  language enable communication between individuals

v  language is culturally transmitted and varies across cultural groups

v  language uses primarily vocal sounds but only a subset of all possible vocal sounds.

v  Language units are arbitrary symbols need not have any correspondence to the things they represent

v  Language has a grammatical structure that can be analyzed on many levels.

v  Language units can be arrange according to grammar to produce novel utterances and to convey novel ideas.

v  The ideas need not currently be true, and might never have or never be true.

The Message

         The message is the meat of the communication situation. The message is embedded in the following signs and symbols:

ØNatural sign

ØNon-natural sign

ØIconic sign

ØDigital sign

Basic communication skills

üProbing

üClarifying

üInterpreting

üConfronting

üsummarizing

Chapter 14 Social and Cultural Influences on

the cognitive and motivational processes of learning

Socio cultural influences on learning

      
Learning is the major goal of teaching. Learning is influence by various social and cultural factors.

Theories of situated learning

     Situated learning is also known as situated cognition. It hinges on the belief that learning is embedded in or connected to the context in which knowledge and skills are developed (Santrock,2004)

     It is a basic assumption in the constructivist approach that deals with leaning. This assumption is twofold (Snowman and Biehler, 2006)

      Learning is made meaningful when it is anchored on a realistic context.

      Traditional forms of classroom learning and instruction are largely  decontextualized in the sense that what students learn is good only for taking tests and performing other classroom tasks. This situation leads to condition that has been referred to as inert knowledge. This condition indicates that students fail to use their learning to solving real life problems.

Teaching strategies to address the socio cultural dimension of learning

o   active teaching

o   critical thinking

o   discussion strategy

o   case story teaching

o   social networking

o   service learning

o   problem based teaching

o   experimental learning

o   reflective teaching

Chapter 15 Theories of Intelligence

         Intelligence is a construct that refers to our ability to acquire knowledge, think and reason logically and deal effectively with the environment.

SPEARMAN'S TWO FACTO THEORY

·         G factor refers to inborn ability

·         S Factor is influenced by the environment statistical procedures, such us factor analysis.

THORNDIKE'S MULTIFACTOR THEORY

·        Level refers to the degree of difficulty of certain tasks

·        Range  is for the quantity of task of certain level of difficulty

·        Area means the overall quantity of task of each level

·        Speed  is the rate of movement of each task

THURSTONE'S THOERY

·         Verbal comprehension refers to our ability to understand written or spoken expression

·         Perceptual speed

·         Numerical ability

·         Associative memory

·         Spatial visualization

Triarchic theory of intelligence

Robert Stenberg develop the theory to emphasize product of or the end results of intellectual work.

·    
 Analytic Intelligence

o   Metacomponents

o   Performance components

o   Knowledge acquisition

·         Creative intelligence

·         Practical intelligence

Multiple Intelligences (MIs)

            In 1983, Harvard psychologist Howard Gardner proposed  his famous theory of multiple intelligences.

·         Linguistic intelligence

·         logical/ mathematical intelligence

·         spatial intelligence

·         musical intelligence

·         bodily-kinesthetic intelligence

·         interpersonal intelligence

·         naturalist intelligence

Types of Intelligences

      Rational Intelligence deals with the mental function necessary for conceptual and rational thinking.

      Emotional Intelligence lies at our emotions.